Adoption Drivers of Climate Smart Irrigation Technologies for Sustainable Production by Smallholder Maize Farmers in Botswana

D. Jagadeesh; M. Christian; H. Khobai; S.S. Letsoalo

doi:10.17159/2413-3221/2025/v53n5a21390

Authors

D. Jagadeesh Northwest University https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8041-1368
M. Christian University of Mpumalanga https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4446-0298
H. Khobai University of Johannesburg https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9595-6691
S.S. Letsoalo North-West University

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2025/v53n5a21390

Keywords:

Botswana, Adoption, Climate-Smart Agriculture, Irrigation, Maize Farming, Smallholder Farmer, Production

Abstract

The adoption of climate-smart agricultural technologies by smallholder maize farmers in Botswana remains very low. This study assesses the adoption drivers of the improved irrigation technologies in Botswana and analyses the characteristics of the smallholder maize farmers. Data were collected by administering a structured questionnaire during face-to-face contact with a sample of approximately 270 smallholder maize farmers. A probit regression model was used to determine the factors influencing the adoption of improved irrigation technology, and the results indicate that most farmers are likely to adopt irrigation systems. However, the adoption decision is influenced by socioeconomic characteristics, such as credit constraints, a lack of knowledge about irrigation technologies, and a lack of extension services. Descriptive analysis was employed to identify the attributes of the farmers. The statistics implied that 62% of the respondents were older than 50 years, only 15.87% of the respondents had received a university education, 48% had adopted improved irrigation methods, and 52% relied on rainfed agriculture. Therefore, this study recommends encouraging more young and educated farmers to adopt Climate-Smart Irrigation Technology (CSIT) to mitigate climate change, enhance productivity, ensure food security, and improve the livelihoods of smallholder maize farmers in Botswana. Hence, the study recommends that concerned institutions in Botswana work to improve access to capital, facilitate training and education on improved irrigation methods, encourage more young and educated people to engage in farming activities, and ensure regular extension services to promote irrigation farming.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

ABDULAI, A., OWUSU, V. & BAKANG, J.A., 2011. Adoption of safer irrigation technologies and cropping patterns: Evidence from Southern Ghana. Ecol. Econ., 70(7): 1415-1423.

ABDUL-KAREEM, M.M. & AZAHINLI, M.A., 2018. Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of cassava farmers influencing output levels in the Savannah Zone of Northern Ghana. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 13(4): 189-195.

ADEOTI, A., 2008. Factors influencing irrigation technology adoption and its impact on household poverty in Ghana. J. Agric. Rural Dev. Trop. Subtrop., 109(1): 51-63

ALABI, O. & BUKOLA, T., 2023. Introduction to descriptive statistics. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1002475

ANLEY Y., BOGALE A. & HAILE-GABRIEL A., 2007. Adoption decision and use intensity of soil and water conservation measures by smallholder subsistence farmers in Dedo district, Western Ethiopia. Land Degrad Dev., 18(3): 289-302.

ARYAL, J.P., RAHUT, D.B., MAHARJAN, S. & ERENSTEIN, O., 2018. Factors affecting the adoption of multiple climate-smart agricultural practices in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. Nat. Resour. Forum., 42(1): 141-158.

BERIHUN, K.H., BIHON, K.A. & KIBROM, A.W., 2014. Adoption and impact of agricultural technologies on farm income: Evidence from southern Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. Int. J. Food Agric. Econom., 2(4): 1-16.

BHALOTRA, Y.P.R., 1987. Climate of Botswana, part II, elements of climate. Republic of Botswana: Department of Meteorological Services, Gaborone.

BOTSWANA TOURISM., 2021. Location. Available from https://www.botswanatourism.co.bw/location

CASWELL, M.F., 1991. Irrigation technology adoption decisions: Empirical evidence. In A. Dinar & D. Zilberman (eds.), Economics and management of water and drainage in agriculture. Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 295-312.

CHRISTIAN, M., OBI, A. & AGBUGBA, I.K., 2019. Adoption of irrigation technology to combat household food insecurity in the resource-constrained farming systems of the Eastern Cape, South Africa. S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext., 47(2): 94-104.

DINAR, A. & ZILBERMAN, D., 1991. The economics and management of water and drainage in agriculture. New York: Springer Science & Business Media.

DOLISCA, F., CARTER, R., MCDANIEL, J., SHANNON, D.A. & JOLLY C., 2006. Factors influencing farmers’ participation in forestry management programs: A case study from Haiti. Forest Ecology and Management., 236(2): 324-331.

DONG, B., 2008. Study on environmental implication of water saving irrigation in Zhanghe irrigation system. Available from http: //spm-water-ap. net/wc/modules/news/

FADEYI, O., ARIYAWARDANA, A. & AZIZ, A., 2022. Factors influencing technology adoption among smallholder farmers: a systematic review in Africa. J. Agric. Rural Dev. Trop. Subtrop., 123(1): 13-30.

FAO., 2023. Food security snapshot, Botswana. Available from https://www.fao.org/giews/countrybrief/country .jsp?code=BWA&lang=es.

FAWZY, Z.F. & SHEDEED, S.I., 2020. Climate-smart agriculture and intelligent irrigation system for management of water resources in arid and semi-arid regions: A review. In A. Haque, A. Ishtiaque & A. Chowdhurywater (eds.), Flood management and water security under a changing climate: Proceedings from the 7th International Conference on Water and Flood Management. Springer International Publishing, pp. 361-370.

FEDER, G. & UMALI, D.L., 1993. The adoption of agricultural innovations: A review. Technol. Forecast. Social Change., 43(3-4): 215–239.

FEDER, G., JUST, R. & ZILBERMAN, D., 1985. Adoption of agricultural innovations in developing countries: A survey. Econ. Dev. Cult. Change., 33(2): 255-98.

GAUTAM, T.K. & BHATTA, D., 2017. Determinants of irrigation technology adoptions and production efficiency in Nepal’s agricultural sector. Annual Meeting, 4-7 February, Mobile, Alabama, 252856, Southern Agricultural Economics Association.

INTERANTIONAL TRADE ADMINISTRATION., 2014. Botswana - Country Commercial Guide, Agricultural sector. Available from https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/botswana-agricultural-sectors

KREPS, D., 1990. A Course in Microeconomic Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

KUMAR, S., YADAV, A., KUMAR, A., HASANAIN, M., SHANKAR, K., KARAN, S., RAWAT, S., SINHA, A., KUMAR, V., GAIROLA, A., PRAJAPATI, S.K. & DAYAL, P., 2023. Climate smart irrigation practices for improving water productivity in India: A comprehensive review. Int. J. Environ. Clim. Chang., 13(12): 333-348.

KURGAT, B.K., LAMANNA, C., KIMARO, A., NAMOI, N., MANDA, L. & ROSENSTOCK, T.S., 2020. Adoption of climate-smart agriculture technologies in Tanzania. Front. Sustain. Food Syst., 4(55): 1-9.

LEBETA, T.H., 2017. Participation in and impact of small-scale irrigation practice on household income: The Case of Abay Chomen District of Oromia National, Regional State, Ethiopia. Master’s thesis, Haramaya University, Oromia, South Africa.

LEONARDI, G. & TADEI, R., 1984. Random utility demand models and service location. Reg. Sci. Urban Econ., 14(3): 399-431.

LEONARDI, G., 1981. The use of random-utility theory in building location-allocation models. IIASA Working paper. WP-81-028. Available from oai: pure.iiasa.ac.at: 1733.

MABOHLO, S., AKINYEMI, B. & MUSHUNJE, B., 2021. Drivers of irrigation technology adoption among smallholder farmers in Keiskammahoek, South Africa. Int. J. Clim. Change: Impacts Respond., 13(1): 111-120.

McLEOD, G., 1992. Environmental change at Bobonong in the central district, Eastern Botswana. Botswana Notes and Records., 24: 87–121.

MITROVIĆ, I., TODOROVIC, M., MARKOVIC, M. & MEHMETI, A., 2023. Eco-efficiency analysis of rainfed and irrigated maize systems in Bosnia and Herzegovina. J Water Clim Change., 14(12): 4489–4505.

MULUKI, K., MOGAKA, H., MUGWE, J. & NYARINDO, S., 2022. Factors influencing adoption of irrigation technologies among smallholder Farmers in Machakos County, Kenya. J. Agric. Ext., 26(3): 44-59.

NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT OFFICE., 2013. National Disaster Risk Reduction Strategy 2013–2018. Available from https://www.undp.org/.

QUAN, X. & REINER D., 2021. Factors influencing the adoption of agricultural machinery by Chinese Maize Farmers. Agric., 11(11): 1090.

SCHUCK, E.C., FRASIER, W.M., WEBB, R.S., ELLINGSON, L.J. & UMBERGER, W.J., 2005. Adoption of more technically efficient system as a drought response. Int J Water Resource Dev., 21(4): 651–662.

SCOTCH, K.K., 2008. The settlement nexus of the Southern Tswana on Hilltops and Valleys in Present Day South East Botswana in the 19th Century. Masters thesis, University of Pretoria.

SELEJIO, O. & LASWAY, J.A., 2019. Economics analysis of the adoption of inorganic fertilizers and improved maize seeds in Tanzania. AfJARE., 14: 310–330.

SEROTE, B., MOKGEHLE, S., DU PLOOY, C., MPANDELI, S., NHAMO, L. & SENYOLO, G., 2021. Factors influencing the adoption of climate-smart irrigation technologies for sustainable crop productivity by smallholder farmers in arid areas of South Africa. Agric., 11(12): 1222.

SHAW, C.S., 2014.Agricultural technology adoption in West Africa. Master’s thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.

SIKKA, A.K., ISLAM, A. & RAO, K.V., 2018. Climate‐smart land and water management for sustainable agriculture. Irrig. Drain., 67(1): 72-81.

SILVA, M.F., VAN SCHOUBROECK, S., COOLS, J. & VAN PASSEL, S., 2024. A systematic review identifying the drivers and barriers to the adoption of climate-smart agriculture by smallholder farmers in Africa. Front. Environ. Econ., 3: 1-14

STATISTICS BOTSWANA., 2020. Botswana environment statistics: Natural and technological disasters digest 2019. Gaborone.

SUVEDI, M., GHIMIRE, R. & KAPLOWITZ, M., 2017. Farmers’ participation in extension programs and technology adoption in rural Nepal: A logistic regression analysis. J. Agric. Educ. Ext., 23(4): 351–371.

TANTI, P.C., JENA, P.R., ARYAL, J.P. & RAHUT, D.P., 2022. Role of institutional factors in climate‐smart technology adoption in agriculture: Evidence from an Eastern Indian state. Environ. Chall., 7: 100498.

TEHA, D. & JIANJUN, L., 2021. Factors affecting adoption of small-scale irrigation technology: Insights from Sire Woreda, Oromiya Region, Ethiopia. Am. J. Appl. Sci. Res., 7(4): 84-101.

THE RURAL DEVELOPMENT SECRETARIAT., The Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development 2024. Available from https://prddsgofilestorage.blob.core. windows.net/api/dref/images /Drought%20Situation%20BW%20(002).pdf

TNA ADAPTATION., 2021. Preparing a technology action plan. Available from https://tech-action.unepdtu.org/ wpcontent/uploads/sites/2/2021/11/tap-report-ukraine-1.pdf

TRADE ADMINISTRATION., 2024. Agricultural Sectors. Available from https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/botswana-agricultural-sectors

TSHEKO. R., 2003. Rainfall reliability, drought and flood vulnerability in Botswana. Water SA., 29(4): 389-392.

VAN DEN BERG, J., 2013. Socioeconomic factors affecting adoption of improved agricultural practices by small-scale farmers in South Africa. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 8(35): 4490–4500.

WB CLIMATE CHANGE KNOWLEDGE PORTAL (CCKP)., 2021. Botswana. Available from https://climateknowled geportal.worldbank.org/country/ botswana/climate-data-historica

WONDMU, G., 2010. Determinants of drip irrigation technology adoption in Degua Woreda, Tigray Region, Ethiopia: Household Level Analysis. Masters thesis, Mekelle University.