Determinants of Smallholder Farmers’ Perceptions of Biochar: A Case Study for Okhahlamba Local Municipality

B.T.N. Bhekiswayo; M. Mudhara; M. Mamabolo; M. Siwela

doi:10.17159/2413-3221/2025/v53n5a21331

Authors

B.T.N. Bhekiswayo University of KwaZulu-Natal https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3120-8456
M. Mudhara University of KwaZulu-Natal https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8739-0811
M. Mamabolo Agricultural Research Council https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8607-5622
M. Siwela University of KwaZulu-Natal https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8703-9431

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2025/v53n5a21331

Keywords:

Biochar, Principal Component Analysis, Multiple Regression Model, Sustainability, Okhahlamba Local Municipality

Abstract

Globally, biochar technology has gained recognition as a key tool in mitigating climate change and achieving food security. When farmers understand the benefits of biochar, they can adopt the technology and reap its potential benefits. Therefore, this study aimed to assess farmers' perceptions of biochar, including its production, agronomic benefits, climate change mitigation effects, and access to information using primary data from 265 smallholder farmers in the Okhahlamba Local Municipality. Principal component analysis and multiple regression models were employed to analyse the data. The study found that age, farm size, livestock size, access to extension services, number of schooling years, household size, principal occupation, cooperative membership, awareness of biochar, knowledge of biochar, and training were statistically significant determinants of perceptions of biochar technology. The study recommends the development of clear and accessible communication channels between researchers and farmers to convey the benefits of biochar technology. Cooperatives can play a vital role in bridging the gap in access to biochar information. Education and outreach programs can educate farmers about the production, usage, and potential positive effects of biochar technology. Further evidence of the benefits of the technology can contribute to the integration of biochar into agricultural, environmental, and sustainability policies and strategies, which can lead to production and food security among small-scale farmers.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

ACHARYA, S., ACHARYA, SK., MANDAL, T.K., MOHANTY, B.K. & HAQUE, M., 2023. Information receiving behavior of farmers: the structural and functional analysis. Indian J. Ext. Educ., 59(3): 58-62.

AKINSEYE, F.M., AJEIGBE, H.A., TRAORE, P.C., AGELE, S.O., ZEMADIM, B. & WHITBREAD, A., 2020. Improving sorghum productivity under changing climatic conditions: A modelling approach. Field Crops Res., 246: 107685.

ALI, A. & ERENSTEIN, O., 2017. Assessing farmer use of climate change adaptation practices and impacts on food security and poverty in Pakistan. Clim. Risk Manag., 16: 183-194.

ANANG, B.T. & ZAKARIAHK, A., 2022. Socioeconomic drivers of inoculant technology and chemical fertiliser utilisation among soybean farmers in the Tolon District of Ghana. Heliyon., 8(6).

BHANDARI, S. & HALLOWELL, M.R., 2021. Identifying and controlling biases in expert-opinion research: Guidelines for variations of Delphi, nominal group technique, and focus groups. J. Manage. Eng., 37(3): 04021015.

BJERREGAARD, P.P. & GEORG, S., 2011. The social shaping of technology—A Case Study of Biochar in Denmark. A case study of the innovation journey of biochar in Denmark: Insights for business, researchers, investors and policy-makers. Master's Dissertation, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark. Available from http://studenttheses.cbs.dk/bitstream/handle/10417/1766/peter_poul_bjeraregaard.pdf?sequence=1

ČADRO, S., UZUNOVIĆ, M., CHERNI-ČADRO, S. & ŽUROVEC, J., 2019. Changes in the water balance of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a result of climate change. Agric. For., 65(3): 19-33.

CARRER, M.J., DE SOUZA FILHO, H.M. & BATALHA, M.O., 2017. Factors influencing the adoption of Farm Management Information Systems (FMIS) by Brazilian citrus farmers. Comput. Electr. Agric., 138: 11-19.

DIMITROV, B.G., 2019. Effects of climate change on women. Int. J. Multidiscip. Res., 4(5): 201-215.

EL BILALI, H., BASSOLE, I.H.N., DAMBO, L. & BERJAN, S., 2020. Climate change and food security. Agric. For., 66(3): 197-210.

ELTIGANI, A., OLSSON, A., KRAUSE, A., ERNEST, B., FRIDAHL, M., YANDA, P. & HANSSON, A., 2022. Exploring lessons from five years of biochar-producing cookstoves in the Kagera region, Tanzania. Energy Sustain. Dev., 71: 141-150.

FIDEL, R.B., LAIRD, D.A. & PARKIN, T.B., 2019. Effect of biochar on soil greenhouse gas emissions at the laboratory and field scales. Soil Sys., 3(1): 8.

FIELD, A., 2018. Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th edition). SAGE.

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANISATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS., 2009. 1.02 billion hungry. Available from http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/20568/icode/

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANISATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS., 2024. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2024 – Financing to end hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition in all its forms. Rome. Available from https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/d5be2ffc-f191-411c-9fee-bb737411576d/content

GEBREMEDHIN, G.H., BEREKET, H., DANIEL, B. & TESFAYE, B., 2015. Effect of biochar on yield and yield components of wheat and post-harvest soil properties in Tigray, Ethiopia. J Fertil Pestic., 6(2): 2-5.

HASEGAWA, T., FUJIMORI, S., HAVLÍK, P., VALIN, H., BODIRSKY, B.L., DOELMAN, J.C., FELLMANN, T., KYLE, P., KOOPMAN, J.F., LOTZE-CAMPEN, H. & MASON-D'CROZ, D., 2018. Risk of increased food insecurity under stringent global climate change mitigation policy. Nat. Clim. Chang., 8(8): 699-703.

HOTELLING, H., 1933. Analysis of a complex of statistical variables into principal components. J. Educ. Psychol., 24(6): 417.

JEFFERY, S., MEINDERS, M.B., STOOF, C.R., BEZEMER, T.M., VAN DE VOORDE, T.F., MOMMER, L. & VAN GROENIGEN, J.W., 2015. Biochar application does not improve the soil hydrological function of a sandy soil. Geoderma., 251: 47-54.

JOLLIFFE, I.T., 2002. Principal component analysis for special types of data. New York: Springer.

KARIM, M.R. & ISLAM, M.M., 2018. Scope and constraints for biochar promotion for renewable clean energy, sustainable agriculture and climate change mitigation. Unpublished research report for the Akha-Biochar Project. Dhaka: The Christian Commission for Development in Bangladesh.

KE, J., DAN, H., WANG, Q. & RAZZAQ, A., 2025. The role of off-farm employment in promoting sustainable farm development through integrated pest management technology adoption. Front. Sustain. Food Syst., 8: 1503951.

KIBUE, G.W., 2018. Use of biochar for increased crop yields and reduced climate change impacts from agricultural ecosystems: Chinese farmers perception and adoption strategy. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 13(21): 1063-1070.

KRAH, K., MICHELSON, H., PERGE, E. & JINDAL, R., 2019. Constraints to adopting soil fertility management practices in Malawi: A choice experiment approach. World Dev., 124: 104651.

LANGYINTUO, A., 2020. Smallholder farmers' access to inputs and finance in Africa. In S.G. Paloma, L. Riesgo & K. Louhichi (eds.), The role of smallholder farms in food and nutrition security. Springer, pp. 133-152.

LATAWIEC, A.E., KRÓLCZYK, J.B., KUBOŃ, M., SZWEDZIAK, K., DROSIK, A., POLAŃCZYK, E., GROTKIEWICZ, K. & STRASSBURG, B.B., 2017. Willingness to adopt biochar in agriculture: The producer's perspective. Sustain., 9(4): 655.

LE HOANG NGUYEN, L., HALIBAS, A. & QUANG NGUYEN, T., 2023. Determinants of precision agriculture technology adoption in developing countries: A review. J. Crop Improv., 37(1): 1-24.

LEHMANN, J. & JOSEPH, S., 2015. Biochar for environmental management: An introduction. In J. Lehmann & S. Joseph (eds.), Biochar for environmental management: Science, Technology and Implementation. London: Routledge, pp. 1-13.

LOKI, O., 2022. Farmers' perceptions towards privatisation of extension services in Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa. J. Int. Agric. Ext. Educ., 29(4): 27-53.

MAAKE, M.M.S. & ANTWI, M.A., 2022. Farmer’s perceptions of effectiveness of public agricultural extension services in South Africa: An exploratory analysis of associated factors. Agric. Food Secur., 11(1): 34.

MAHMOUD, Y., NJENGA, M., SUNDBERG, C. & DE NOWINA, K.R., 2021. Soils, sinks, and smallholder farmers: Examining the benefits of biochar energy transitions in Kenya. Energy Res. Soc. Sci., 75: 102033.

MAJA, M.M. & AYANO, S.F., 2021. The impact of population growth on natural resources and farmers’ capacity to adapt to climate change in low-income countries. Earth Syst Environ., 5: 271-283.

MAKAMANE, A., LOKI, O., SWANEPOEL, J., ZENDA, M. & VAN NIEKERK, J., 2025. Farmers' perceptions on the capacity of extension practitioners on climate change in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Front. Clim., 7: 1534254.

MAKATE, C., MAKATE, M., MANGO, N. & SIZIBA, S., 2019. Increasing resilience of smallholder farmers to climate change through multiple adoption of proven climate-smart agriculture innovations: Lessons from Southern Africa. J. Environ. Manag., 231: 858-868.

MALLO, M.F.L. & ESPINOZA, O., 2015. Awareness, perceptions and willingness to adopt cross-laminated timber by the architecture community in the United States. J Clean Prod., 94: 198-210.

MEKONNEN, D., BRYAN, E., ALEMU, T. & RINGLER, C., 2017. Food versus fuel: Examining trade-offs in the allocation of biomass energy sources to domestic and productive uses in Ethiopia. Agric. Econ., 48(4): 425-435.

MELASH, A.A., BOGALE, A.A., MIGBARU, A.T., CHAKILU, G.G., PERCZE, A., ÁBRAHÁM, É.B. & MENGISTU, D.K., 2023. Indigenous agricultural knowledge: A neglected human based resource for sustainable crop protection and production. Heliyon., 9(1).

MNUKWA, M.L., MDODA, L. & MUDHARA, M., 2025. Assessing the adoption and impact of climate-smart agricultural practices on smallholder maize farmers' livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. Front. Sustain. Food Syst., 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1543805

MOTTALEB, K.A., 2018. Perception and adoption of a new agricultural technology: Evidence from a developing country. Technol. Soc., 55: 126-135.

MUCHURU, S. & NHAMO, G., 2019. A review of climate change adaptation measures in the African crop sector. Clim Dev., 11(10): 873-885.

MUKHERJEE, N., HUGÉ, J., SUTHERLAND, W.J., MCNEILL, J., VAN OPSTAL, M., DAHDOUH‐GUEBAS, F. & KOEDAM, N., 2015. The Delphi technique in ecology and biological conservation: Applications and guidelines. Methods Ecol. Evol., 6(9): 1097-1109.

MUMAH, E., CHEN, Y., HONG, Y. & OKELLO, D., 2024. Machinery adoption and its effect on maise productivity among smallholder farmers in western Kenya: Evidence from the chisel harrow tillage practice. Res. World Agric. Econ., 5(1): 1-18.

MUNICIPALITIES SOUTH AFRICA., 2016. Okhahlamba Local Municipality (KZN235) Demographic Information. Available from https://municipalities.co.za/demographic/1104/okhahlamba-local-municipality

MUYAMBO, F., JORDAAN, A. & BAHTA, Y., 2017. The role of indigenous knowledge in drought risk reduction: A case of communal farmers in South Africa. Jamba-J Disaster Ris Stud., 9(1): 1-6.

MWANGI, M. & KARIUKI, S., 2015. Factors determining adoption of new agricultural technology by smallholder farmers in developing countries. J. Econ. Sustain. Develop., 6(5): 208-217.

MWANGI, S., KIRUI, B.K. & KIBUE, G.W., 2022. Awareness and perceptions of climate variability adaptation among forest-adjacent communities in Mau Forest, Kenya. East African Journal of Forestry and Agroforestry., 5(1): 302-329.

MWANGU, A.R., 2020. Appraising climate services in Uganda: Impact on adaptation and mitigation of climate change. In W.L. Filho & D. Jacob (eds.), Handbook of Climate Services. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 383-400.

NTSHANGASE, N.L., MUROYIWA, B. & SIBANDA, M., 2018. Farmers' perceptions and factors influencing the adoption of no-till conservation agriculture by small-scale farmers in Zashuke, KwaZulu-Natal Province. Sustain., 10(2): 555.

PANDIT, N.R., MULDER, J., HALE, S.E., ZIMMERMAN, A.R., PANDIT, B.H. & CORNELISSEN, G., 2018. Multi-year double cropping biochar field trials in Nepal: Finding the optimal biochar dose through agronomic trials and cost-benefit analysis. Sci. Total Environ., 637: 1333-1341.

PEARSON, K., 1901. LIII. On lines and planes of closest fit to systems of points in space. Lond. Edinb. Dubl. Phil. Mag., 2(11): 559-572.

PERRONE, M., MAZZOCCHI, C., TOSCA, A. & VERGA, E., 2024. Farmers' Perception of biochar technology: Investigating drivers and barriers of technology adoption. IRIS Institutional Research Information System - AIR Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca. Available from https://air.unimi.it/handle/2434/1071028

RAHMAN, M.S., HAQUE, M.E. & NOMAN, M.R.A.F., 2020. An overview of biochar production and biochar producing stoves in Bangladesh. Int. J. Sci. Manag. Stud., 14-31.

ROGERS, P.M., FRIDAHL, M., YANDA, P., HANSSON, A., PAULINE, N. & HAIKOLA, S., 2022. Socioeconomic determinants for biochar deployment in the southern highlands of Tanzania. Energies., 15(1): 144.

SCHOLZ, S.B., SEMBRES, T., ROBERTS, K., WHITMAN, T., WILSON, K. & LEHMANN, J., 2014. Biochar systems for smallholders in developing countries: Leveraging current knowledge and exploring future potential for climate-smart agriculture. Washington DC: The World Bank.

SEWELL, M., 2008. Principal component analysis. London, UK: University College London.

SHERMAN, C.D., 2022. Biochar: Practices, perspectives, and prospects in New York State agriculture. Albany: State University of New York.

SIKA, M.P. & HARDIE, A.G., 2014. Effect of pine wood biochar on ammonium nitrate leaching and availability in a South African sandy soil. Eur. J. Soil Sci., 65(1): 113-119.

SINYOLO, S., 2020. Technology adoption and household food security among rural households in South Africa: The role of improved maize varieties. Technol. Soc., 60: 101214.

SOHI, S., LOPEZ-CAPEL, E., KRULL, E. & BOL, R., 2009. Biochar, climate change and soil: A review to guide future research. CSIRO Land and Water Science Report., 5(09): 17-31.

SPARREVIK, M., ADAM, C., MARTINSEN, V. & CORNELISSEN, G., 2015. Emissions of gases and particles from charcoal/biochar production in rural areas using medium-sized traditional and improved “retort” kilns. Biomass and Bioenergy., 72: 65-73.

STATISTICS SOUTH AFRICA., 2016. Community Survey 2016 Agricultural households. Available from https://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/03-01-05/03-01-052016.pdf#:~:text=KwaZulu%2DNatal%20accounted%20for%2021%2C6%25%20of%20all%20households,male%20and%2010%2C1%25%20were%20female%20(Figure%202.4).

SUTRADHAR, I., JACKSON-DEGRAFFENRIED, M., AKTER, S., MCMAHON, S.A., WAID, J.L., SCHMIDT, H.P., WENDT, A.S. & GABRYSCH, S., 2021. Introducing urine-enriched biochar-based fertiliser for vegetable production: Acceptability and results from rural Bangladesh. Environ Dev Sustain., 23(9): 12954-12975.

TAMAKO, N., THAMAGA-CHITJA, J.M. & MUDHARA, M., 2022. Agricultural knowledge networks and their implications on food accessibility for smallholder farmers. J. Consum. Sci., 50: 27-46.

UNITED NATIONS., 2015. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. New York: Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015. Available from https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/291/89/PDF/N1529189.pdf?OpenElement

WILLIAMS, P.A., CRESPO, O., ABU, M. & SIMPSON, N.P., 2018. A systematic review of how vulnerability of smallholder agricultural systems to changing climate is assessed in Africa. Environ. Res. Lett., 13(10): 103004.

WORKINEH, A., TAYECH, L. & EHITE, H.K., 2020. Agricultural technology adoption and its impact on smallholder farmers welfare in Ethiopia. Afr. J. Agric. Res., 15(3): 431-445.

ZOSSOU, E., AROUNA, A., DIAGNE, A. & AGBOH-NOAMESHIE, R.A., 2020. Learning agriculture in rural areas: The drivers of knowledge acquisition and farming practices by rice farmers in West Africa. J. Agric. Educ. Ext., 26(3): 291-306.

ZOUGMORÉ, R.B., PARTEY, S.T., OUÉDRAOGO, M., TORQUEBIAU, E. & CAMPBELL, B.M., 2018. Facing climate variability in sub-Saharan Africa: analysis of climate-smart agriculture opportunities to manage climate-related risks. Cah. Agric., 27(3): 1-9.

ZULU, N.S., HLATSHWAYO, S.I., OJO, T.O., SLOTOW, R., CELE, T. & NGIDI, M.S.C., 2024. The impact of credit accessibility and information communication technology on the income of small-scale sugarcane farmers in Ndwedwe Local Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Front. Sustain. Food Syst., 8: 1392647.