Evaluating the effect of certain management practices on the production performance of goat farmers in selected districts of KwaZulu-Natal: agricultural extension can make a difference

Goat farming holds great importance in the KwaZulu Natal province, it offers means to generate income specially to sustain rural households. Employment and food security are accounted for. Proper management of goats play a prime role in improving the productivity of herds. To discover what influence various management practices have on the production of goats, data was collected from seventy farmers in the uMgungundlovu district in KwaZulu-Natal province. The following four production variables were investigated: conception rate, lambing percentage, mortality rate and weaning percentage was investigated. Management practices investigated were: Internal parasite control; external parasite control; provision of supplementary feed during winter and summer; provision of supplementary lick; fertility testing of bucks before mating; provision of flush feed before breeding season starts; the presence of specific breeding seasons and pregnancy diagnosis. There was a statistical significance (P<0.05) in the conception rate where flush feeding was provided and a specific breeding season was present. A statistically significant higher lambing percentage with the control of internal parasites, provision of supplementary feed, flush feeding and the presence of a specific breeding season was obtained. There was a statistically higher weaning percentage with the provision of supplementary feed (P<0.05), flush feeding, the presence of a specific breeding season and pregnancy diagnosis.


INTRODUCTION
According to Stewart (2000:134) KwaZulu Natal has a goat population of one million goats, almost all of which are in the communal areas. Goats are important in the improvement of rural livelihood (Peacock, 2005:179), they are a source of income and ensure food security through aiding seasonal food variability and availability (Dube, 2015:2). According to Dube (2015:3), farmers lack access to technical, as well as market information and their management strategies are not properly defined. One of the most important factors in determining profitability of a goat enterprise is the production rate, which is largely a function of pregnancy rate, lambing rate, weaning rates and the frequency with which kids are born. Increased reproduction with any type of goat would contribute to improved efficiency (Shelton, 1978:994). Reproduction dictates the rate of expansion of the flock and the number of excess stocks for sale (Peacock, 1996:235).

Managing for a productive goat herd
In many parts of rural Africa sheep and goats wander freely around the villages and communal veld, scavenging for food. This often leads to over grazing, poor condition of livestock and poor production standards (Maree & Casey 1993). A healthy animal is able to resist diseases and can recover more easily when it gets sick. A sick animal cost a farmer money and time (DARD, 2015:11). The nutrition of goats is the most important factor affecting performance.
Poor nutrition results in lower rates of production (Senthilkumar & Purushothaman, 2017:13). Davila (2017:95) points out that factors that affect conception rate include nutritional management and body condition of goats. Does with low body condition scores will display reduced reproductive performance compared to than those with greater body condition scores (Kenyon, Maloney & Blache, 2014:45).
Buck fertility is just as important as doe fertility when it comes to breeding season (Elliot, 2021). Seaman (2004:1) asserts that in all breeding flocks there are bucks that either have physical abnormalities or poor serving abilities which are likely to interfere with semen quality.
These bucks must be identified and removed so that the does have a better chance of conceiving. To address management factors, it is recommended that a certain breeding season is practised to allow for improved, controlled management of the flock. Furthermore, this is only possible if bucks can be prevented from mating the does (DARD, 2015: 86). Determining S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext. Ntuli & Fourie Vol. 50 No. 1, 2022: 178-204 10.17159/2413-3221/2022 180 pregnancy status early on is arguably the most important factor in determining reproductive efficiency, early identification of open does provides a better evaluation of conception rate (Evermann & DeAvila, 2019:1).
Poor production results mainly from kid mortality which are mainly due to poor management (including poor nutrition) (DARD, 2015:64). Understanding reproduction in goats is essential to increase productivity, which is largely a function of pregnancy rate, kidding rate, weaning rates and the frequency at which kids are born (Extension, 2019). Profit in the livestock industry depends on the efficiency of production, which is determined by the optimal growth of animals (Mwuso, 2019:12). Increased reproduction in any type of goat would contribute to improved efficiency (Shelton, 1978:994).

Internal parasites
Internal parasites are a major health problem in the livestock industry, they cause retarded growth, poor reproductive performance, condemnation of goat carcases in abattoirs and high kid mortality (Chikwanda, Mutisi, Sibanda, Makuza, Kusina &Chikwanda, 2013:32). Dube (20015:49) reported parasites to be one of the causes of mortality in goats. Goats are sensitive to the effects of internal parasitism; the effect of parasitism is determined by the interactions between the type of parasites present in the geographic area, parasite life cycles, the environment (weather patterns) and the type of farm management (Mary & Smith, 2004:1). Dube (2015:18) stated that most parasites may be harboured in the animal dung, consequently failure to remove the dung and maintain good hygiene may lead to the transfer of the parasitic pathogens.

Provision of supplementary feed during winter and summer
It has been well-known that supplementary feeding (flushing) before mating and during lactation affects reproductive performance positively (Snyman, 2010:46). Ewes should nutritionally replenish losses from the previous kidding with the time between weaning and mating (Rathod, Veeranna, Ramachandra, Biradar & Desai, 2018:239). Rathod et al. (2018:239) further stated that it is advisable to increase the level of nutrition before mating and after mating because this will result in higher ovulation and conception rates.

Provision of supplementary lick
Licks can be used to compensate for mineral deficiencies or imbalances and potentially to decrease digestive disorders and toxic plant compounds (Ayotte, Parker & Gullingham, 2008:1041. The supplementation of licks provides various nutrients such as nitrogen, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamin (Makkar, 2007:17). The nutritional limitations are recognized as an important determinant of an animal condition (Ayotte et al., 2008(Ayotte et al., :1047. The use of supplementary licks is of advantage as it limits excess intake (Makkar, 2007:14). A study by Herbert (1967:3) indicated that animals select certain licks over others and select sites within a lick. Hoon (2016:1) stated that a farm is seldom short of only one nutrient, therefore most farmers must combine different supplements or licks to provide them with balanced feed.
The provision of trace elements through licks remains one of the cheapest options, however it comes with the disadvantages of unregulated intake (Coetzee, 2013:86). In most grazing situations, trace minerals containing salt blocks cannot provide sufficient trace mineral to meet nutritional needs.

Flush feeding
When ewes have low body condition scores, they often have low conception rates, low twinning rates and kids with low birth weight and weaning weight (Acero-Camelo, Valencia, Rodriguez & Randel, 2008:2). Flush feeding helps in preparing the ewes to be in a good condition for mating. Acero-Camelo (2008:5) stated that flushing improved the body condition in all ewes, not only at mating but also during their past-partum period (Titi, Alnimer, Tabbaa & Lubbadeh, 2008:34). No benefit can be seen in animals with excessive body condition scores and overly thin animals do not respond to flushing (Metzger, 2018:1).

Buck fertility testing
Bucks must be in full health in advance before the breeding season to ensure their fertility. All bucks should be examined at least eight weeks before they are introduced to the ewes, this gives time to address any problems or replace the rams that are not healthy and fertile (Molecare, 2017). Seaman (2004:1) stated that in all breeding flocks there are rams that either have physical abnormalities or poor serving abilities which is likely to interfere with semen quality, these rams must be identified and removed so that the ewes have a better chance of conceiving.

Presence of a specific breeding season
Breeding season management is an important tool to optimise the reproductive performance of a breeding herd (Bergh, 2004:11) and a well-planned breeding season can increase profit (Steyn, 2015). Having a specific breeding season comes with preparing the does and bucks for mating thus it has also been proved that better conception figures are obtained by mating during the period of increasing sexual activity (Van Tonder, 2020;1). A controlled breeding season can ensure efficient conception rate and kidding percentage (Prinsloo, 2015).

Pregnancy diagnosis
Examination of goats for pregnancy may be done as part of a reproductive herd health program (Dawson, 2002:41), providing information about conception rates after mating (Karadaev, 2015:184). Early and accurate pregnancy diagnosis are crucial for improving efficiency of reproduction in goats (Kharche & Kouamo, 2015:331; Aban, Abdelghafar, Badawi & Almubarak, 2017:1). Kharche & Kouamo (2015:331) stated that farmers need to be educated on getting their animals checked for pregnancy diagnosis at an early date as it was found that the earlier the pregnancy diagnosis is performed, the better the production and reproduction. It was further stated that separation of flocks into pregnant and non-pregnant ewes might reduce reproductive and production losses in the form of abortions, still births and production of weak lambs (Wani, Wani, Mufti & Khan 1998:239;Karen, Kovacs, Beckers & Szenci, 2001:9).

MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in uMgungundlovu district, KwaZulu-Natal province. Seven municipalities were selected which each had ten respondents, therefore having a total of 70 respondents. This district was chosen to assess current management practices, thereby the effect on production of goats. The results of this study will play a role in improving goat farming in the uMgungundlovu district. A well-designed questionnaire was used to gather data from respondents individually. Farmers were selected using the simple random sampling method (every farmer had an equal chance of being selected) and they participated voluntarily in the survey. All the farmers were visited while the questionnaires were completed.
All raw data was captured and coded in Microsoft Office, Excel®. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the differences between the group that performed a specific management practice and the group that did not perform a specific management practice. Before conducting a t-test to compare the various groups of respondents based on various management practises, the assumptions that must be met before conducting a t-test was investigated. If the sample data did not meet the assumptions for performing a t-test, the Mann-Whitney U test (the nonparametric equivalent of the independent samples t-test) was conducted. According to Maverick (2018), the following assumptions must be met before a T-Test can be conducted.
The first assumption made regarding t-tests concerns the scale of measurement. The assumption for a t-test is that the scale of measurement applied to the data collected follows a continuous or ordinal scale, such as the scores for an IQ test. The second assumption made is that of a simple random sample, that the data is collected from a representative, randomly selected portion of the total population. The third assumption is the data, when plotted, results in a normal distribution, bell-shaped distribution curve. The fourth assumption is a reasonably large sample size is used. A larger sample size means the distribution of results should approach a normal bell-shaped curve. The final assumption is homogeneity of variance. Homogeneous, or equal, variance exists when the standard deviations of samples are approximately equal.
Analysis was completed using Statistical Package for Social Science SPSS Software.

Educational level
The majority of respondents (n=28) 40%, which consists of (n=27) males and (n=1) female had low levels of education (lower than grade 12) and 1.43% (female) had a degree in Animal S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext.
Ntuli & Fourie Vol. 50 No. 1, 2022: 178-204 10.17159/2413-3221/2022 (License: CC BY 4.0) 184 Science (Table 1), which is the highest level of education obtained for this study. Oduro-Ofori, Aboagye & Acquaye (2014:1951 stated that the returns on agricultural productivity increases as the educational level increases. According to Lubambo (2011:30) the level of education has an influence on the ability to make decisions and it is directly related to the success of a farm.
In this study 38.57% of respondents were in the age group 51 to 70+ years. STATSSA   More than 39% of farmers were farming with cattle, 50% were farming with chicken and 10.3% had sheep. The different species play important roles for food production and income generation from different animals (FAO, 2017).

Breeds
Most farmers farm with Indigenous veld goats (n=55), followed by the Boer goat (n=7) and cross breeds (n=7). Farmers who farm with cross breeds stated that they breed the Boer goat with the Indigenous veld goats in order to get hybrid vigour. Louw (2018:1) opines that Indigenous goat farmers and breeders were previously mainly concentrated in the Eastern Cape Province, but are now found in the KZN Province, as well as other provinces of South Africa.
The indigenous breeds recorded were the Nguni (Imbuzi) breed, Xhosa lob ear and Skilder.
The table below (Table 3) shows the goat breeds of the assessed farmers. 3.14 Farming system The uMgungundlovu district had more farmers farming extensively (n=37), 53%, followed by a semi-intensive farming system with 40% (n=28) and intensive farming system with the lowest number of respondents (n=5) 7%. Odhiambo (2015:5) states that an extensive farming system is more common because less labour is required, and animal welfare is improved since animals   Ntuli & Fourie Vol. 50 No. 1, 2022: 178-204 10.17159/2413-3221/2022 187 discovered that some old farmers do not buy deworming remedies, they still believe in homemade remedies.

Figure 2: Respondents' method of controlling internal parasite b. External parasites
A considerable proportion of respondents (95.71%) were controlling external parasites while 4.29% were not (Table 4). Ticks were a major problem, resulting in heartwater disease (also known as Ehrlichiosis). Heartwater disease can be fatal and usually begin with fever and may involve neurological signs and respiratory distress (Yunker, 1996:159).  189 Figure 4-A shows that 46% of respondents provide supplementary feed while 54% do not provide supplementary feed. Some of the respondents stated that feed is expensive, therefore they graze animals on veld without the provision of additional supplementary feed, and figure 4-C shows that 77% of the farmers graze their animals.

Provision of supplementary lick by respondents; C-Grazing animals on veld; D-Forage reservation by respondents; E-Form of forage reservation by farmers.
Most of the farmers (83%) figure 4-B, provided supplementary licks. Some stated they did not have knowledge of supplementary licks and did not see the need for it as it is expensive. Figure   Yes

Yes No
Yes 83% No 17%   Yami (2009:12), it has the greatest potential of infection and fly infestation. This is another example where extension services can not only educate farmers in using more effective methods but also reduce possible losses.

b. Animal identification
Stuart (2016:1) stated that being able to identify individual animals on the farm is critical to good farm management.  Vol. 50 No. 1, 2022: 178-204 10.17159/2413-3221/2022 191 method to identify livestock while 10% used ear notching and 2.86% ear tattooing. Most farmers in this study find the ear tag application method the quickest and easiest procedure.  (Househam, 2011:72). The major role of cultivated pastures is to satisfy the forage requirements of animals when there is low quality and quantity of forage produced by rangelands (Aucamp, 2008:22). Two farmers were cultivating Eragrostis tef (Teff) and Digitaria eriantha respectively. A number of two famers were cultivating Medicago sativa (Alfalfa). One farmer had Mooi mix.

Marketing channels
S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext. Ntuli & Fourie Vol. 50 No. 1, 2022: 178-204 10.17159/2413-3221/2022 The marketing channel that was used the least by the farmers was abattoirs with 4%, auctions (14%), butchers (10%) and speculators (12%). The majority of meat goats marketed in South Africa are sold privately in the informal market to be slaughtered for religious or traditional purposes. The choice of marketing channel depends on a number of issues which include the availability of market, prices offered in the market and the distance to the market (Sehar, 2018:9).   Vol. 50 No. 1, 2022: 178-204 10.17159/2413-3221/2022 (License: CC BY 4.0) 193

Internal parasites
In the study, 94% of the farmers were controlling internal parasites, 51.5 % use the oral dosing method, (12.1%) injecting and those who use both the dosing and injection method accounts to 36.4%. The only statistically significant difference was for the lambing percentage variable, P<0.05 (Table 4. 1). Respondents who controlled internal parasites had a statistically significant (P<0.05) higher lambing percentage than respondents that did not control internal parasites. A ewes' body condition can be affected by internal parasites (Prinsloo, 2015). On   Table 7 shows that where internal parasites were not controlled, the conception rate was 94.4% and where they were controlled, the conception rate was 77.6%, therefore no statistically significant difference (P>0.05). In a similar manner, there was no statistically significant difference where internal parasites were controlled for both weaning and mortality rate S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext. Ntuli & Fourie Vol. 50 No. 1, 2022: 178-204 10.17159/2413-3221/2022 194 respectively. Respondents who had controlled internal parasites had a statistically significant (P<0.05) higher lambing percentage than respondents that did not control internal parasites.

Provision of supplementary feed during winter
In this study, (Table 8)

Provision of a supplementary lick
A total of 83% respondents provided supplementary lick, however, the provision of supplementary licks in this study showed no significance (P>0.05) for any of the four production variables. It may be possible that either insufficient quantities of lick were supplied to the animals or the wrong lick combination was supplied. Again, the extension officer is well positioned to act as a link between various feed companies and the farmer ensuring that farmers are well educated in the application of licks. Louw (1979:133) stated that when dealing with lick supplementation, there are basic principles that should be adhered to, namely: The objective of supplying licks is to supplement certain nutrients which are deficient in grazing in order to create a balance among nutrients which will ensure optimal utilization of available plant material; the lick should be supplementary and should never substitute feed in any form; The acceptance of the lick by animals should be such that voluntary intake can be controlled S. Afr. J. Agric. Ext. Ntuli & Fourie Vol. 50 No. 1, 2022: 178-204 10.17159/2413-3221/2022 and take place at a consistent basis. Any deviation from these guidelines will render the lick less effective (Louw, 1979:133). The listed guidelines could have been contravened in this study, causing the supplementary lick to be less effective on the production variables (Table   9). The extension officer should rather introduce farmers to the concept and use of licks and allow them to make their own decisions.

Flush feeding
There was also a significant difference (P<0.05) in the lambing percentage (113.9%) variable where flush feeding was provided. Flushing can increase lambing and kidding rates by 10 to 20% (Metzger, 2018). The study done by Rafiq, Khan & Aujla (2003:115) showed that lambs born to ewes supplemented and flushed excelled (high birth weight and weaning weight). This study showed high statistical significance in the weaning percentage variable.

Buck fertility testing
In this study, four (5.71%) respondents were testing their breeding rams for fertility. In commercial flocks semen examination is only worthwhile if there is doubt as to ram fertility (Seaman, 2004:3). This study showed no statistically significant (P>0.05) difference in the conception rate and lambing percentage when ram fertility testing was conducted (Table 4.5).
However, the conception rate (92.7%) and lambing percentage (113.6%) were high where rams were tested for fertility. The majority of the farmers (75.71%) had rams and ewes running together throughout the year.

Presence of a specific breeding season
Only 17 (rather use numbers of farmers who employed a specific breeding season, or almost a quarter of farmers) of farmers had a specific breeding season. There is a proven need for more farmers to be educated on the importance of having a breeding season. With knowledge of controlled breeding season, grazing can be utilised at its peak production period, the best camps can allocated to the breeding herd which may result in high conception rate and does can be mated at optimal condition (weight) (Bergh, 2004).

Pregnancy diagnosis
In this study however, there was a statistically significant (P<0.05) difference in the weaning percentage (Table 13). A total number of 8 (11.43%) farmers performed pregnancy diagnosis. Kharche & Kouamo (2015:331) stated that farmers need to be educated on getting their animals checked for pregnancy diagnosis at an early date as it was found that the earlier the pregnancy diagnosis is performed, the better the production and reproduction. It was further stated that separation of flocks into pregnant and non-pregnant ewes might reduce reproductive and production losses in the form of abortions, still births and production of weak lambs (Wani, Wani, Mufti & Khan 1998:239;Karen, Kovacs, Beckers & Szenci, 2001:9).  Vol. 50 No. 1, 2022: 178-204 10.17159/2413-3221/2022 (License: CC BY 4.0) 198

CONCLUSION
The results of the study attest to the positive effect of sound management practices on most of the production parameters. The productivity and production potential of goats were enhanced where good management was practiced.
Furthermore, there was an improvement in lambing percentage where internal parasites were controlled, the majority of the farmers (94.3%) were controlling internal parasites through different methods. The provision of supplementary feed increased lambing and weaning percentage. In a similar fashion, the provision of supplementary feeding increased conception rate, lambing percentage and weaning percentage. There was a statistically significant higher conception rate, lambing percentage and weaning percentage where a specific breeding season existed although only twenty-four percent of the farmers had a specific breeding season.
Pregnancy diagnosis also improved weaning percentage, in this study only 11.43% farmers were performing pregnancy diagnosis. Despite the positive effect of management practice on the production of goats, efforts are required to minimize the technological gap on improved management practices.

EXTENSION IMPLICATIONS
Extension officers can play a role in providing the knowledge and information which will enable the farmer to make sound management decisions and thereby ensure maximum production. Extensionists are better positioned to emphasize the importance of implementing better management practices, such as, but not limited to: control of parasites, provision of supplementary feed and lick, flush feeding, presence of a specific breeding season, ram fertility testing and pregnancy diagnosis. Moreover, stress how such practices has an impact on production.
Participation and attending agricultural seminars could prove beneficial to empowering farmers and extension officers, these include: The Royal Show, NAMPO and International Agricultural Technology Conference & Exhibition (Agritech Africa). Farmers can obtain formal training through short courses offered at universities and colleges of agriculture.